Entry, training, and educational requirements for most water
transportation occupations are established and regulated by
the U.S. Coast Guard, an agency of the U.S. Department of Homeland
Security.
Increasing global trade and tourism will generate growth in
water transportation occupations.
Nature of the Work
The movement of huge amounts of cargo, as well as passengers,
between nations and within our Nation depends on workers in
water transportation occupations, also known on commercial
ships as merchant mariners. They operate and maintain deep-sea
merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, excursion
vessels, and other waterborne craft on the oceans, the Great
Lakes, rivers, canals, and other waterways, as well as in
harbors.
Captains, mates, and pilots of water vesselscommand
or supervise the operations of ships and water vessels, both
within domestic waterways and on the deep sea. Captains
or masters are in overall command of the operation
of a vessel, and they supervise the work of all other officers
and crew. They determine the course and speed of the vessel,
maneuver to avoid hazards, and continuously monitor the vessel’s
position with charts and navigational aides. Captains either
direct or oversee crew members who steer the vessel, determine
its location, operate engines, communicate with other vessels,
perform maintenance, handle lines, or operate equipment on
the vessel. Captains and their department heads ensure that
proper procedures and safety practices are followed, check
to make sure that machinery and equipment are in good working
order, and oversee the loading and discharging of cargo or
passengers. They also maintain logs and other records tracking
the ships’ movements, efforts at controlling pollution, and
cargo and passengers carried.
Deck officers or mates direct the routine operation
of the vessel for the captain during the shifts when they
are on watch. All mates stand watch for specified periods,
usually 4 hours on and 8 hours off. However, on smaller vessels,
there may be only one mate (called a pilot on some
inland towing vessels), who alternates watches with the captain.
The mate would assume command of the ship if the captain became
incapacitated. When more than one mate is necessary aboard
a ship, they typically are designated chief mate or first
mate, second mate, third mate, etc. Mates also supervise and
coordinate activities of the crew aboard the ship. They inspect
the cargo holds during loading to ensure that the load is
stowed according to specifications and regulations. Mates
supervise crew members engaged in maintenance and the primary
upkeep of the vessel.
Pilots guide ships in and out of harbors, through
straits, and on rivers and other confined waterways where
a familiarity with local water depths, winds, tides, currents,
and hazards such as reefs and shoals are of prime importance.
Pilots on river and canal vessels usually are regular crew
members, like mates. Harbor pilots are generally independent
contractors who accompany vessels while they enter or leave
port. Harbor pilots may pilot many ships in a single day.
Motorboat operators operate small, motor-driven boats
that carry six of fewer passengers on fishing charters. They
also take depth soundings in turning basins and serve as liaisons
between ships, between ship and shore, between harbors and
beaches, or on area patrol.
Ship engineers operate, maintain, and repair propulsion
engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery.
Merchant marine vessels usually have four engineering officers:
A chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant
engineer. Assistant engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing
the safe operation of engines and machinery.
Marine oilers and more experienced qualified members
of the engine department, or QMEDs, maintain the vessel
in proper running order in the engine spaces below decks,
under the direction of the ship’s engineering officers. These
workers lubricate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving
parts of engines and motors; read pressure and temperature
gauges; record data; and sometimes assist with repairs and
adjust machinery.
Sailors operate the vessel and its deck equipment
under the direction of the ship’s officers and keep the nonengineering
areas in good condition. They stand watch, looking out for
other vessels and obstructions in the ship’s path, as well
as for navigational aids such as buoys and lighthouses. They
also steer the ship, measure water depth in shallow water,
and maintain and operate deck equipment such as lifeboats,
anchors, and cargo-handling gear. On vessels handling liquid
cargo, mariners designated as pumpmen hook up hoses,
operate pumps, and clean tanks; on tugboats or tow vessels,
they tie barges together into tow units, inspect them periodically,
and disconnect them when the destination is reached. When
docking or departing, they handle lines. They also perform
routine maintenance chores, such as repairing lines, chipping
rust, and painting and cleaning decks or other areas. Experienced
sailors are designated able seamen on oceangoing vessels,
but may be called simply deckhands on inland waters;
larger vessels usually have a boatswain, or head seaman.
A typical deep-sea merchant ship has a captain, three deck
officers or mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers,
a radio operator, plus six or more unlicensed seamen, such
as able seamen, oilers, QMEDs, and cooks or food handlers.
The size and service of the ship determine the number of crewmembers
for a particular voyage. Small vessels operating in harbors,
on rivers, or along the coast may have a crew comprising only
a captain and one deckhand. The cooking responsibilities usually
fall under the deckhands’ duties.
On larger coastal ships, the crew may include a captain,
a mate or pilot, an engineer, and seven or eight seamen. Some
ships may have special unlicensed positions for entry level
apprentice trainees. Unlicensed positions on a large ship
may include a full-time cook, an electrician, and machinery
mechanics. On cruise ships, bedroom stewards keep passengers’
quarters clean and comfortable.
Working Conditions
Merchant mariners spend extended periods at sea. Most deep-sea
mariners are hired for one or more voyages that last for several
months; there is no job security after that. The length of
time between voyages varies depending on job availability
and personal preference.
The rate of unionization for these workers is about 36 percent,
much higher than the average for all occupations. Consequently,
merchant marine officers and seamen, both veterans and beginners,
are hired for voyages through union hiring halls or directly
by shipping companies. Hiring halls rank the candidates by
the length of time the person has been out of work and fill
open slots accordingly. Hiring halls typically are found in
major seaports.
At sea, these workers usually stand watch for 4 hours and
are off for 8 hours, 7 days a week. Those employed on Great
Lakes ships work 60 days and have 30 days off, but do not
work in the winter when the lakes are frozen. Workers on rivers,
on canals, and in harbors are more likely to have year-round
work. Some work 8-hour or 12-hour shifts and go home every
day. Others work steadily for a week or a month and then have
an extended period off. When working, they usually are on
duty for 6 or 12 hours and off for 6 or 12 hours. Those on
smaller vessels are normally assigned to one vessel and have
steady employment.
People in water transportation occupations work in all weather
conditions. Although merchant mariners try to avoid severe
storms while at sea, working in damp and cold conditions often
is inevitable. While it is uncommon nowadays for vessels to
suffer disasters such as fire, explosion, or a sinking, workers
face the possibility that they may have to abandon their craft
on short notice if it collides with other vessels or runs
aground. They also risk injury or death from falling overboard
and hazards associated with working with machinery, heavy
loads, and dangerous cargo. However, modern safety management
procedures, advanced emergency communications, and effective
international rescue systems place modern mariners in a much
safer position.
Most newer vessels are air conditioned, soundproofed from
noisy machinery, and equipped with comfortable living quarters.
For some mariners, these amenities have helped ease the sometimes
difficult circumstances of long periods away from home. Also,
modern communications, especially email, link modern mariners
to their families. Nevertheless, some mariners dislike the
long periods away from home and the confinement aboard ship
and consequently leave the occupation.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Entry, training, and educational requirements for most water
transportation occupations are established and regulated by
the U.S. Coast Guard, an agency of the U.S. Department of
Homeland Security. All officers and operators of commercially
operated vessels must be licensed by the Coast Guard, which
offers various kinds of licenses, depending on the position
and type of vessel.
There are two ways to qualify for a deck or engineering officer’s
license: applicants either must accumulate sea time and meet
regulatory requirements, or must graduate from the U.S. Merchant
Marine Academy or one of the six State maritime academies.
In both cases, applicants must pass a written examination.
Federal regulations also require that an applicant pass a
physical examination, a drug screening, and a National Driver
Register Check before being considered. Persons without formal
training can be licensed if they pass the written exam and
possess sea service appropriate to the license for which they
are applying. However, it is difficult to pass the examination
without substantial formal schooling or independent study.
Also, because seamen may work 6 or fewer months a year, it
can take 5 to 8 years to accumulate the necessary experience.
The academies offer a 4-year academic program leading to a
bachelor-of-science degree, a license (issued only by the
Coast Guard) as a third mate (deck officer) or third assistant
engineer (engineering officer), and, if the person is qualified,
a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve, Merchant
Marine Reserve, or Coast Guard Reserve. With experience and
additional training, third officers may qualify for higher
rank.
Sailors and unlicensed engineers working on U.S. flagged
deep-sea and Great Lakes vessels must hold a Coast Guard-issued
document. In addition, they must hold certification when working
aboard liquid-carrying vessels. Able seamen also must hold
government-issued certification. For employment in the merchant
marine as an unlicensed seaman, a merchant mariner’s document
issued by the Coast Guard is needed. Most of the jobs must
be filled by U.S. citizens; however, a small percentage of
applicants for merchant mariner documents do not need to be
U.S. citizens, but must at least be aliens legally admitted
into the United States and holding a green card. A medical
certificate of excellent health attesting to vision, color
perception, and general physical condition is required for
higher level deckhands and unlicensed engineers. While no
experience or formal schooling is required, training at a
union-operated school is the best source. Beginners are classified
as ordinary seamen and may be assigned to any of the three
unlicensed departments: Deck, engine, or steward. With experience
at sea and perhaps union-sponsored training, an ordinary seaman
can pass the able-seaman exam and move up with 3 years of
service.
No special training or experience is needed to become a seaman
or deckhand on vessels operating in harbors or on rivers or
other waterways. Newly hired workers generally are given a
short introductory course and then learn skills on the job.
After sufficient experience, they are eligible to take a Coast
Guard exam to qualify as a mate, pilot, or captain. Substantial
knowledge gained through experience, courses taught at approved
schools, and independent study is needed to pass the exam.
Harbor pilot training usually consists of an extended apprenticeship
with a towing company or a pilots’ association. Entrants may
be able seamen or licensed officers.
Employment
Water transportation workers held more than 72,000 jobs in
2004. The total number who worked at some point in the year
was perhaps twice as large because many merchant marine officers
and seamen worked only part of the year. The following tabulation
shows employment in the occupations that make up this group:
Captains, mates, and pilots of water
vessels
29,000
Sailors and marine oilers
28,000
Ship engineers
12,000
Motorboat operators
3,400
About 33 percent of all workers were employed in water transportation
services. About 17 percent worked in inland water transportation—primarily
the Mississippi River system—while the other 16 percent were
employed in water transportation on the deep seas, along the
coasts, and on the Great Lakes. Another 25 percent worked
in establishments related to port and harbor operations, marine
cargo handling, or navigational services to shipping. The
Federal government employed approximately 5 percent of all
water transportation workers, most of whom worked on supply
ships and are Civilian Mariners of the Department Navy’s Military
Sealift Command.
Job Outlook
Employment in water transportation occupations is projected
to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through
the year 2014. Job growth will stem from increasing tourism
and increases in shipping traffic due to rising imports that
will provide greater employment in and around major port cities.
Employment in deep-sea shipping for American mariners is
expected to stabilize after several years of decline. International
regulations have raised shipping standards with respect to
safety, training, and working conditions. Consequently, competition
from ships that sail under foreign flags of convenience has
lessened as the standards of operation become more uniform.
This has made the costs of operating a U.S. ship more comparable
to foreign-flagged ships and has modestly increased the amount
of international cargo carried by U.S. ships. A fleet of deep-sea
U.S.-flagged ships is also considered to be vital to the Nation’s
defense, so some receive Federal support through a maritime
security subsidy and other provisions in laws that limit certain
Federal cargoes to ships that fly the U.S. flag.
Employment growth also is expected in passenger cruise ships
within U.S. waters. Vessels that operate between U.S. ports
are required by law to be U.S.-flagged vessels. The building
and staffing of several new cruise ships that will travel
around the Hawaiian Islands will create new opportunities
for employment at sea in the cruise line industry, which is
composed mostly of foreign-flagged ships. In addition efforts
are underway at the Federal level that could lead to greater
use of ferries to handle commuter traffic around major metropolitan
areas, which may cause more workers to be hired.
Moderating the growth in water transportation occupations
is a projected decline in vessels operating in the Great Lakes
and inland waterways. Vessels on rivers and canals and on
the Great Lakes carry mostly bulk products, such as coal,
iron ore, petroleum, sand and gravel, grain, and chemicals.
Although shipments of most of these products are expected
to grow through the year 2014, imports of steel are dampening
employment on the Lakes.
Job openings will also result from the need to replace those
leaving the occupation. Some experienced merchant mariners
may continue to go without work for varying periods. However,
this situation appears to be changing, with demand for licensed
and unlicensed personnel rising. Maritime academy graduates
who have not found licensed shipboard jobs in the U.S. merchant
marine find jobs in related industries. Because they are commissioned
as ensigns in the Naval or Coast Guard Reserve, some are selected
for active duty in those branches of the Service. Some find
jobs as seamen on U.S.-flagged or foreign-flagged vessels,
tugboats, and other watercraft or enter civilian jobs with
the U.S. Navy or Coast Guard. Some take land-based jobs with
shipping companies, marine insurance companies, manufacturers
of boilers or related machinery, or other related jobs.
Earnings
Earnings vary widely with the particular water transportation
position and the worker’s experience, ranging from the minimum
wage for some beginning seamen or mate positions to more than
$42.02 an hour for some experienced ship engineers. Median
hourly earnings of water transportation occupations in May
2004 were:
Ship engineers
$26.42
Captains, mates, and pilots of water
vessels
24.20
Motorboat operators
15.39
Sailors and marine oilers
14.00
Annual pay for captains of larger vessels, such as container
ships, oil tankers, or passenger ships, may exceed $100,000,
but only after many years of experience. Similarly, captains
of tugboats often earn more than the median reported here,
with earnings dependent on the port and the nature of the
cargo.
Related Occupations
Workers in other occupations who make their living on the
seas and coastal waters include fishers and fishing vessel
operators and some members of the Armed Forces.
Sources of Additional Information
Information on a program called “Careers Afloat”, which includes
a substantial listing of training and employment descriptive
information and contacts in the U.S., may be obtained through:
Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation,
400 7th St. SW., Room 7302, Washington, DC 20590. Internet:
http://www.marad.dot.gov/acareerafloat
Information on merchant marine careers, training, and licensing
requirements is available from any of the following organizations:
Military Sealift Command, APMC, PO Box 120, Camp Pendleton,
Virginia Beach, VA 23458-0120. Internet: http://www.sealiftcommand.com/
Seafarers’ International Union, 5201 Auth Way, Camp Springs,
MD 20746.
Paul Hall Center for Maritime Training and Education,
P.O. Box 75, Piney Point, MD 20674-0075. Internet: http://www.seafarers.org/phc
International Organization of Masters, Mates, and Pilots,
700 Maritime Blvd., Linthicum Heights, MD 21090-1941.
U.S. Coast Guard National Maritime Center, 4200 Wilson
Blvd., Suite 630, Arlington, VA 22203-1804. Internet: http://www.uscg.mil/stcw/index.htm
Source:
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor,
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006-07
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